In contrast, the geography of Mexico is complex, rugged and daunting. It is reported that when Charles V, King of Spain, asked Cortés to describe New Spain, Cortés crumpled a piece of paper to represent the rugged terrain. The land is dominated by mountains and highlands created many millions of years ago by the forces of tectonic plates pressing against each other under the oceans.
Southern Edge of North American Plate: Mexico
Mexico sits at the southern edge of the vast North American plate, which includes not only all of the North American Continent but parts of Siberian Asia and Greenland as well. To the west is the huge Pacific Plate. A smaller plate, the Cocos, presses up from the southwest. The combined pressure of the Cocos Plate (from the southwest) and the Caribbean Plate (from the southeast and on which Central America rests), creates the curved “hook” and mountainous terrain of Mexico’s southern region.
Topographic Structures
The majority of Mexico’s topographic structures run north-south and parallel to the two coasts, and they curve in response to the forces of the tectonic plates (see map below).
Mexico’s topography is dominated by three rugged mountain chains located between two coastal plains, along the: (8, turquoise) Gulf of Mexico to the East; and (7) Sea of Cortés/Gulf of California in the West. Up to modern times these mountain chains effectively cut off travel and communication between the coastal plains and the highlands:
- Sierra Madre Oriental (5, dark blue) in the East;
- Sierra Madre Occidental (3, dark green) in the West;
- Sierra Madre del Sur (12, gray) in the Southwest ending at Mexico’s most narrow point, the flat Isthmus of Tehuantepec. South of the Isthmus rise the mountains of Chiapas and Central America (14, light gray; 15, red), which are part of the Caribbean Plate.
Transverse Volcanic Axis: Mineral Rich
The Transverse Volcanic Axis (10) is a mountain range that lies on the East-West axis across the predominant North-South geographic axis. It runs from the Pacific Ocean, south of Puerto Vallarta and Guadalajara, to the Gulf of Mexico near Veracruz. Not surprisingly, it contains many volcanoes, including the famous Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes that sit between Mexico City and Puebla, and Pico de Orizaba, which at 18,000 feet is the highest mountain in Mexico and is located between Puebla and Veracruz.
This region — one of the most tectonically active and complex geological terrains in the world — has formed economically important mineral-rich areas. Mineral deposits can be found in 26 of the 32 Mexican states. These deposits have captured the interest of domestic and multinational mining companies who are seeking to exploit them with increasingly sophisticated, and intrusive, mining technologies.
The Spanish established many of Mexico’s major colonial cities — Veracruz, Puebla, Mexico City, Morelia, Guadalajara — on the Volcanic Axis, probably because the climate is mild year-round, and rain — carried on winds arriving from both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean — is plentiful in the summer.
Biological Diversity (Biodiversity)
The transition zone between two of the world’s major biogeographical zones runs through Mexico, forming a bridge between the Nearctic and Neotropical areas. Following the curve of the mountain ranges, the
- Nearctic Ecozone covers most of North America, including Greenland and the Mexican highlands; and the
- Neotropic Ecozone covers all of South America, Central America, Southern Mexico, Southern Florida and the Caribbean Islands.
The complex array of biogeographic (broad, north-south latitudinal range; highly variable topography) and evolutionary factors (glacial refuges, plate tectonics) have combined to create in Mexico the fifth most biologically rich country in the world. The country's biodiversity is well known and widely celebrated.
Cultural Diversity
In parallel with Mexico’s biodiversity, tremendous cultural diversity also evolved as a response to the natural environment. Early Mesoamerican peoples were vulnerable not only to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, but to hurricanes arriving from the Gulf of Mexico, cyclones from the Pacific Ocean, and to both floods and drought.
Early in their history, the indigenous peoples inhabiting this difficult, often unpredictable land learned well that they were not in control of la naturaleza (the natural world). The Mesoamerican cosmovision, including various creation myths, are a spiritual response to a communal vulnerability that threatened communal destruction when natural phenomena resulted in failure of the corn (maíz) crop on which their survival depended.
The forbidding mountainous terrain prevented easy region-to-region travel and communication. As a result, communities were isolated from each other. Given the isolation and the unpredictability of natural forces, a strong communal sense developed based on the cardinal value of mutual obligation—a value that is still widespread in the indigenous and mestizo (indigenous-Spanish) communities.
In order to gain some predictability regarding the agricultural cycle, Mesoamerican priest-astronomer-mathematicians developed a 365-day solar calendar. Anthropologists have confirmed its widespread use by many indigenous groups. The solar calendar is an important marker attesting to the continuity of Mesoamerican culture across a large geographic area.
The wide variety of flora and fauna that flourished in these isolated ecosystems had a positive result. As early as 2,000 years ago, traders traversed well-established, north-south trade routes trading (bartering) goods throughout Mexico, Central America and even north into what is today the Southwest United States. Trade raised the standard of living for all indigenous groups, as each group gained access to goods produced in a wide variety of ecosystems found throughout Mexico.
Mexico is considered the birthplace of the major early Mesoamerican civilizations and culture. Despite the effects of geographic isolation and linguistic differences, remarkable continuity—probably deriving at least in part from trading activities — is evident among the culture groups that anthropologists identify as Mesoamerican. This continuity is evident today in Mexico’s various indigenous communities.
When Hernán Cortés and his expedition reached the eastern shore of México in 1519, it is estimated that over 300 separate languages were spoken within the boundaries of the present-day Republic of Mexico. Today the Mexican government recognizes 68 distinct indigenous Amerindian languages and 61 indigenous cultures.
Themes to Keep in Mind
Geography profoundly affected the cultural development of the indigenous peoples who first inhabited the lands that today comprise the Republic of Mexico:
The wide variety of flora and fauna that flourished in these isolated ecosystems had a positive result. As early as 2,000 years ago, traders traversed well-established, north-south trade routes trading (bartering) goods throughout Mexico, Central America and even north into what is today the Southwest United States. Trade raised the standard of living for all indigenous groups, as each group gained access to goods produced in a wide variety of ecosystems found throughout Mexico.
Mexico is considered the birthplace of the major early Mesoamerican civilizations and culture. Despite the effects of geographic isolation and linguistic differences, remarkable continuity—probably deriving at least in part from trading activities — is evident among the culture groups that anthropologists identify as Mesoamerican. This continuity is evident today in Mexico’s various indigenous communities.
When Hernán Cortés and his expedition reached the eastern shore of México in 1519, it is estimated that over 300 separate languages were spoken within the boundaries of the present-day Republic of Mexico. Today the Mexican government recognizes 68 distinct indigenous Amerindian languages and 61 indigenous cultures.
Themes to Keep in Mind
Geography profoundly affected the cultural development of the indigenous peoples who first inhabited the lands that today comprise the Republic of Mexico:
- The relative isolation of early communities fostered the development of multiple indigenous groups — each with its own distinct language and customs. Of the more than three hundred separate language — and hence cultural — groups that greeted Cortés, nearly seventy distinct indigenous language groups remain today.
- Many of these cultural traditions are maintained in the Republic’s various, often remote, indigenous communities; moreover, vestiges of Mesoamerican culture are also evident in contemporary urban Mexico.
- Because of its rugged landscape of mountains and steep canyons, Mexico has no navigable rivers but it does have 5,799 miles (9,330 km) of coastline with 76 seaports. About 60% of Mexico’s merchandise sea traffic is concentrated in four major seaports: Altamira and Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico; Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas on the Pacific Ocean.
- In terms of capital-generating capacity, coastal regions are said to be a poor second when compared to lands with navigable rivers. River basins service twice the land area (two riverbanks; one ocean coastline) and are not susceptible to ocean storms, tidal surges and the high maintenance costs associated with ocean storms and tides.
- Only thirteen percent of Mexico’s land is arable. Of this arable land, only a small percentage is irrigated. Despite mild temperatures, only one crop a year can be planted in much of the country because of the long, dry winter season.
- Rugged mountains cut off Mexico’s coastal plains from its arable lands (“bread basket”) on the High Plateau. In recent years the government has invested heavily in a highway network to move people and products. However, shipping goods via land (trucking) is an order of magnitude more expensive than shipping them via water; hence, Mexico’s agricultural areas are handicapped to the extent that the cost of shipping their output to more densely populated regions cuts into the economics of agriculture.
- All the peoples of a river basin normally participate in the same economic system, and commercial contacts foster shared understanding and common interests. In these ways, river networks tend to foster economic and political unity. In Mexico, the absence of navigable river systems is an important factor complicating the issue of political integration at the national level.
- Geographic fragmentation has made it very difficult for any central government — Aztec, Spanish, or Mexican — to gain control over many parts of the country. It is thus fair to say that the geography of Mexico has been at the root of many of the frequent battles in Mexican history between local rulers (caciques) and central government authorities in Mexico City.
